Chapter One | The Legal System

Sources of American Law

To a large part, the roots of our legal heritage can be traced to England, although the American legal system also has roots in Spanish and Dutch law. Once a British colony ruled by King George III through his appointed governors, the United States adopted the greatest share of our laws and legal traditions from the English. For all intents, English law began with the Norman invasion of England in 1066. William the Conqueror and his successors established the king’s court (Curia Regis) to help create a unified nation. Before the Norman Conquest, disputes were settled according to local tribal customs. The king’s court began to develop a common or uniform set of customs applicable to the whole population. This evolved into what became known as the common law, so named because it was intended to be common to the entire British kingdom.

As the number of courts and disputes increased, the more important rulings made each year were compiled into Year Books. Judges referred to these Year Books as a source of guidance in settling cases similar to those already decided. If a dispute was unique (called a case of first impression), judges had to create new law, but they attempted to base their decisions on previously established legal principles as much as possible. Today we still rely on this body of judge-made law developed over the centuries. It is called common law or case law in the United States.

The common law was carried to the colonies by the first English settlers and used by courts during the pre-Revolutionary War period. Common law continued to be applied after the Revolution and during the writing of the U.S. Constitution. It is still a valuable source of law, especially in tort, contract, and agency law. States have also codified some parts of the common law, such as the penal code in criminal law, the probate code in estate law, or the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), which codifies much of the common law relating to the sale of goods.

The Doctrine of Stare Decisis

In cases governed by the common law, courts follow the doctrine of stare decisis. Stare decisis literally means, “to adhere to decided cases” and holds that similar cases should be decided in a similar manner and should yield a similar result. Precedent is the legal decision or holdings from a prior case that courts use to determine the outcome of a similar case or a similar question of law. If a court determines that the facts in the precedent case are not the same as those in the case before it and, therefore, should not control the ruling, the court may distinguish the current case from the precedent. Courts also can, but rarely do, overrule their prior decisions. Courts strive to avoid overruling earlier cases because it upsets the principle of stare decisis and the reliance people place on settled law in planning business and personal affairs.

Constitutional Law

The United States Constitution is the seminal legal document in this country. A state’s constitution holds similar importance within its borders. A constitution establishes the structure of government for the political unit (federal or state) by providing for the branches, subdivisions, and functions of government and by conferring and denying powers to each part. The U.S. Constitution created three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. The Constitution provides each with unique powers that theoretically make each branch equal to the other two. The doctrine of separation of powers provides a system of checks and balances so that one branch may not trammel over the rights and prerogatives of the others. Thus, the Constitution establishes a Congress to make laws, a president to enforce the laws, and a judiciary to interpret them. It also delegates to the states certain powers and casts a basic relationship between the states and the federal government. The relationship created is by definition a federal form of government. Each state possesses a limited amount of sovereignty, but the law of the federal government is supreme and applicable to all of the states.

The U.S. Constitution

Articles I to VII

Article I — Creates in the legislature [the Congress] the authority to enact laws. Article I defines the functions, powers, and role of Congress. Section 8 relates directly to matters affecting business in the United States: the power to lay and collect taxes; to regulate commerce with foreign nations and the states; to promulgate uniform bankruptcy laws; and to establish courts inferior to the U.S. Supreme Court. Section 9 also affects business affairs, states may not impose a tax on exports to a foreign country and they may not give preference to one state over another by regulating commerce.

Article II — The subject of this article is the executive power. The President has the duty to enforce all federal laws. It establishes the President’s term of office, the requirements to become President, and sets forth the presidential election process. It identifies the President as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, confers in the President the power to make treaties with the advice and consent of the Senate, and permits the President to make executive agreements with other nations without the advice and consent of the Senate. At the root of this power is the President’s authority to speak and act on behalf of the country in matters of foreign relations.

Article III — Article III establishes the judicial branch of the government. Article III authorizes the establishment of the U.S. Supreme Court and other federal courts. It confers the power to interpret laws and adjudicate certain disputes to the courts. Article III also provides for trials by jury for crimes and contains a definition of treason. The power of the courts was affirmed in the precedent case of Marbury v. Madison.

Article IV — Concerns the relationships between the states. Each state is bound to recognize the public acts and proceedings of the other states through the “full faith and credit” clause. The power to extradite a criminal from one state to another is also found here.

Article V — Lays out the means by which the U.S. Constitution may be amended.

Article VI — Confers supremacy of the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties over all other laws. All officials – federal and state – are sworn under oath to uphold the U.S. Constitution.

Article VII — Includes original acceptance of the U.S. Constitution by the states.

Constitutional Amendments

The Bill of Rights is the collective name of the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The Bill of Rights contains the freedoms of speech, press, religion, and assembly; the requirement that law enforcement authorities must possess a warrant in order to perform a search and seizure; provisions for protection from self-incrimination; the establishment of a grand jury for capital offenses; requirements for just compensation in eminent domain cases; a prohibition against double jeopardy; and, important provisions for “due process of law.”

The Fourteenth Amendment — While each amendment to the U.S. Constitution is intrinsically and equally important, the Fourteenth Amendment may be considered the “first among equals” in that it makes most of the fundamental guarantees of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states.

Supremacy of the U.S. Constitution

Since the 1930s and the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the U.S. Constitution has been interpreted to allow the federal government to become involved in the conduct of many areas of our daily lives. The regulation of some activities may also be relegated or delegated to the states. In this situation, any federal law that conflicts with a state law on the same subject matter takes precedence over and preempts the state law, unless, of course the federal action is ruled unconstitutional. Should Congress determine that federal law takes priority, its decision generally will be accepted. If Congress is silent on the matter, a court of competent jurisdiction would apply the following analysis to the federal law to determine whether it takes precedence over a state enactment:

Does the U.S. Constitution permit the federal government to regulate the area of law in which this particular law resides? If yes, the federal law will likely prevail.
Does the federal law violate a right guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution, for example, the right to a speedy trial? If yes, the federal law is preempted by the U.S. Constitution.
If not, does a state law address the same subject mater? If so, is there an inconsistency between the two laws? If one exists, the federal law prevails.

If both the federal and state laws are not contradictory, and Congress has not specifically preempted state action, the state law is said to be concurrent with federal law and may be applied.

State Constitutions

Powers not delegated to the federal government are retained by the states unless prohibited in the states’ own constitutions. Therefore, laws on the same subject matter can differ from one state to another in many ways. Businesses need to be aware of these distinctions, including differences between federal and state authority. Conflicting perceptions may appear with respect to the point at which federal power ends and so-called “state rights” begin.

Statutory Law

Statutes are written laws enacted by Congress or a state legislature for the purpose of declaring, ordering, or prohibiting something. Counties, cities, and towns may enact laws, as well. These “local laws” are generally called ordinances. Neither statutes nor ordinances can violate the U.S. Constitution or the applicable state constitution.

State statutory law varies throughout the country, partly because of cultural and geographical differences, and partly because of diverging needs. For example, eight western states enacted marital property statutes, called community property laws, originally derived from the Spanish legal system that originated in Mexico. Louisiana has laws that originated under the Napoleonic Code, because the French initially settled that area and brought with them their system of law. New York has adopted aspects of Dutch property law as it relates to condominium and co-op ownership.

Throughout the text, you will encounter various state and federal statutes. As you read these statutes, you will begin to understand the difficulty in interpreting and applying them. A large portion of the work that modern courts do consists of interpreting what the legislators meant when they passed a law and applying that understanding or meaning to the current circumstances. In this task, a court may be guided by consulting the legislative history of any law, in order to ascertain the intention of the writers of any statute.

Equity

Equity is that body of law that carries out justice when the law itself fails to provide a fair or adequate remedy or no remedy at all. Equity originated in medieval England. During this period, the existing common law rules were highly technical and rigid. The remedies available in the common law courts were scarce. As a result, a prevailing party might not be able to obtain adequate relief in many courts. To rectify this problem, the chancellor, the king’s highest-ranking advisor, heard cases that could not be settled satisfactorily. The Court of Chancery, an offshoot of the Curia Regis, was the court of the king’s chancellor. The most famous chancellor in British history was perhaps Sir Thomas More.

The American colonies adopted the principles of equity along with the common law. Eventually, law and equity became merged, so that today, the majority of states have eliminated separate equity (chancery) and law courts. The same court handles both types of claims. Further, courts may award both monetary damages (“a remedy in law”) and an equitable remedy in specific cases.

Actions at law and suits in equity resolve issues using different procedures. In actions at law, disputes are generally resolved by the application of statutes and previously decided cases. Suits in equity are decided by principles of fairness and equity.

Examples of equitable principles include the doctrines of laches and the “Clean Hands” doctrine. Laches is the product of the maxim that “equity aids the vigilant and not those that slumber on their rights.” This means that if one neglects or omits to do what one should do in a timely fashion it is presumed that he has abandoned his right or claim. The “Clean Hands” doctrine means that the court will not provide an equitable remedy to one who has violated conscience or good faith or other equitable principles. Simply stated, it means that “he who seeks equity must do equity.”

Equitable decisions are called decrees. Unlike legal relief, which involves awards of money or something else of value, equity decrees order a party to do or refrain from doing something. For example, the remedy may come in the form of an injunction—either temporary or permanent—prohibiting one party from doing an act or commanding a party to perform an act. Another type of equitable relief is that of specific performance, where the losing party is ordered to perform the contractual promise he or she made. It is imposed when monetary damages are inadequate. For example, Ross offers to buy Joan’s building for his motorcycle shop and Joan accepts. Joan later changes her mind and decides to keep the property. Since real estate is considered to be unique, and there is no other piece of property or building exactly like Joan’s, a court may order specific performance on the contract. Joan would be compelled to go through with the sale.

Additional equitable remedies include rescission (canceling a contract, thereby putting the parties to the contract in the same position they were in before the contract was formed), restitution (returning property or money to a party), and reformation (where the court of equity will rewrite all or part of a contract to reflect the parties’ actual intentions).

Administrative Law

Congress or a state legislature will oftentimes enact a statute using general language leaving it up to the appropriate administrative agency to create more detailed rules. Federal and state regulatory agencies (for example, the Environmental Protection Agency and the Federal Trade Commission) promulgate their own “rules and regulations” to implement the statutes enacted by the legislatures. These regulations generally have the same impact as a statute, and therefore are often termed administrative laws.

Administrative Agencies

As the United States became industrialized in the latter half of the 19th century, the need arose to create divisions of government that could handle the ever-complex situations that evolved. Congress and state legislatures began to establish administrative agencies. The duties that Congress could not perform in regulating certain activities because of the lack of time and specialized knowledge were delegated to these agencies.

To date, Congress and the executive branch have created over 100 administrative agencies to make, interpret, and enforce laws. These agencies provide a forum where complex issues and disputes can be adjudicated with efficiency, expertise, and fairness. Administrative agencies are authorities in their particular areas of law. Their expertise is critical given the complexities of the law and the complexities of the areas of business the laws seek to regulate.

Administrative agencies exist at every level of the government and they derive their power from the particular branch of the government that created them. For example, Congress creates federal agencies, state legislatures create state agencies, and city councils create their cities’ administrative agencies. An example of a federal agency is the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which is authorized to enforce the federal securities laws that apply to issuers and persons who trade in securities. The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection is an example of a state agency. It regulates air and water quality, wetlands, solid and hazardous waste management, parks and forestry, fish and wildlife. An example of local agency is the Business Integrity Commission of New York City. This agency regulates the trade waste industry, shipboard gambling industry, Fulton Fish Market distribution area and other seafood distribution areas, and public wholesale markets.

Legislative supervision over agencies may be minimal; however, administrative agencies are subject to the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) which requires agencies to follow uniform procedures in making rules and establishes basic notice and hearing requirements, which are collectively known as “due process” rights.

While the vast majority of administrative actions are processed informally, certain administrative agencies have been assigned quasi-judicial authority to adjudicate cases through an administrative proceeding. These proceedings are not identical to court trials; however, the agency must comply with the Due Process Clause of the U.S. Constitution. In other words, the individual or business must be given adequate notice and a meaningful opportunity to be heard, and fair trial procedures must be utilized in making administrative determinations. Administrative actions may also be challenged by claiming that an agency has acted ultra vires, that is, beyond the scope of their own power and authority.

Administrative law judges (ALJs) preside over administrative proceedings. There is no jury. Counsel may represent the administrative agency and the respondent and may call witnesses and introduce evidence. Upon hearing the case, the ALJ will render a decision in the form of an order that will state “the findings of fact and the conclusions of law” upon which the decision is based. The order becomes final if it is not appealed. If either party is dissatisfied with the decision, it may seek an appeal that consists of a review by the agency or perhaps by a court. In some cases, a successful appeal will result in a completely new or “de novo” hearing on the merits of the case. In other cases, the scope of appellate review is limited. A court will defer to the findings of the ALJ and only decide whether those findings could reasonably have been reached on sufficient or substantial credible evidence present in the record.

Treaties

According to the U.S. Constitution, a treaty is made by the President with the head of a foreign country. It must be ratified by two-thirds of the Senate. It then becomes “the supreme law of the land.” A conflict of law between a treaty and a state or federal law causes that law to become invalid.

Basis of Commercial Law

The area of law pertaining to commercial dealings is called commercial or business law. It includes aspects of contract law, sales, corporations, agency, partnerships, and other subjects included in this text.

Uniform Laws

Since each state is a sovereign, with a different set of laws, the differences created issues for commerce between the states. Beginning in the late 18th century, a group of legal scholars formed the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) and began meeting to draft uniform statutes. State legislatures were encouraged to adopt the uniform law. In addition to the NCCUSL the American Law Institute [ALI], founded in 1923, has also developed a number of comprehensive codes of law. Each state may adopt all or part (or none, for that matter) of a uniform law. Therefore, the law on any particular subject is not “uniform” throughout the country.

Examples of uniform laws include the Model Business Corporation Act, the Uniform Gifts to Minors Act, the Uniform Arbitration Act, and the Uniform Federal Lien Registration Act. A number of other uniform laws have been written as well. Students of business law become familiar with the Uniform Commercial Code or “UCC,” one of the most important legal codes.

The Uniform Commercial Code

The UCC is a unified body of statutes governing nearly all commercial transactions. Nevertheless, the interpretations of the UCC are found in case law, or the reported decisions of the courts. By providing uniformity and stability among the states, the UCC encourages the advancement of business and assures businesspeople that their legal contracts will be carried out and enforced by the courts.

The UCC did not result in drastic changes in the basic principles of commercial law. There are, however, important differences from the common law. While the common law was guided, to a large extent, by the principle of caveat emptor or “let the buyer beware,” the UCC envisions a different role of a merchant in commercial transactions. Merchants are held to a very high standard of performance and must act to act in good faith within the commercial sphere. UCC § 2-103 defines good faith as “honesty in fact” and the “observance of reasonable commercial standards of fair dealing in the trade.” This is a far cry from caveat emptor!

The UCC defines and explains important and sometimes commonly misunderstood legal and business terms, thus assisting parties in the drafting of contracts and aiding courts in their interpretation and enforcement. For example, courts may rule that certain contracts or terms within a contract are unconscionable and therefore unenforceable. The case law governing contracts in one state has persuasive value in courts of other states because adoption of the UCC results in “uniformity.”

All fifty states have adopted the UCC, as well as, the District of Columbia, the Virgin Islands, and Guam. Louisiana was the last state to adopt the UCC. Why do you think Louisiana was so late in adopting the UCC?

Classification of Law

Laws may be classified into three different groupings. They are: (1) criminal law and civil law; (2) substantive law and procedural law; and (3) public law and private law.

Criminal and Civil Law

Philosophically, a crime may be considered a wrong committed against society. Federal and state prosecutors who bring the case against the defendant, or the person committing the wrongdoing, represent society. The respective criminal law applies in these cases. In certain instances, a city or municipality may initiate a criminal action, such as charging a person with theft, assault, public disorderliness, or some other criminal offense. The formal charge is made in the name of the state in which the alleged violation took place. In some cases, “persons” may include corporations and other types of business entities. Crimes are punishable by imprisonment and/or fines, and in some cases, the making of restitution to the victim of a crime.

In general terms, civil law is applied when an injured party, or a plaintiff, brings an action against another party, a defendant, because the defendant did not meet or breached a legal duty owed to the plaintiff. Anyone may be a party to a civil suit—individuals, business entities, and government entities. If the defendant loses a civil case, the plaintiff is usually awarded some form of damages (money, property) or some form of equitable relief.

At times, the same behavior may violate both criminal and civil laws. For example, a car thief may be charged for violating a criminal statute and may also be sued in a civil court by the owner of the car for money damages.

Substantive and Procedural Law

Laws that prescribe the rights and obligations of people in their everyday lives are called substantive laws. A statute that makes theft illegal is a substantive law.

Procedural laws establish the means and rules by which substantive laws are applied. For example, in federal civil suits all individuals involved (judge, defendant, jury, plaintiff, etc.) act in compliance with the rules set down in the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. By way of example, one such rule sets forth time limits for the filing of law suits in federal courts.

Public and Private Law

Public law is law enacted by an authorized government body. Examples include the U.S. Constitution, state constitutions, federal aviation laws, state laws of incorporation, municipal parking ordinances, and zoning laws.

Private law develops from a relationship between parties and creates a framework of rules to establish rights and obligations of the parties. For example, an employment contract creates a legal relationship between the employer and employee. The terms of the contract are a type of private law to be obeyed by the parties. The requirements for executing the contract and the means for enforcing the contract are a matter of public law; however, the terms for performance are private law created by the parties to the employment contract.

Primary and Secondary Sources of Law

Primary sources of law, or binding authority, are those sources of law a court must follow when deciding cases. Primary sources include, constitutions, statutes, regulations, and case law. Secondary sources of law, or persuasive authority, include case law from other jurisdictions, legal dictionaries, law review articles, and treatises. Secondary sources of law are not binding on the court but may help guide the court in deciding a case.

Schools of Jurisprudential Thought

The Natural Law School

The natural law school is one of the oldest legal philosophies, at least dating back the days of Aristotle. He noted the natural law applies to all humankind. There is a higher and universal law transcending all creation, and the human law, or civil law, aspires to embody these general, universal principles. Every human being has an inclination to discern good from bad, right from wrong. The notion of “natural rights” comes from the natural law.

The Positivist School

The adherents to the legal positivist school do not believe natural rights come from a higher form of law. Instead, laws are created by societies. Whether there are good laws or bad laws does not matter. Under their philosophy, all laws must be obeyed until they are changed.

The Historical School

Followers of the historical school look to history, tradition, or customs. They look to what legal doctrines have withstood the passage of time—what works and what does not work. Adherents to the historical school will look to past cases for guidance and follow those decisions.

Legal Realism

Legal realists will look outside the statutory framework, as they believe the law cannot always be applied with total uniformity. Judges are permitted to bring in their own psychological, economic, and political predispositions into their decisions. They believe that law is not a scientific enterprise in which deductive reasoning can be applied consistently to reach an outcome in every case. Instead, judges must resolve cases by balancing the interests of the parties with that of society.

Questions

1. How did the common law develop?
2. What is a “case of first impression”?
3. Explain the principle of “stare decisis.”
4. Why is the U.S. Constitution so important in this country?
5. What are the various rights protected in the Bill of Rights?
6. Explain the federal powers conferred in Articles I, II, and III. What is the doctrine of separation of powers?
7. Differentiate between courts of equity and law. Why are each needed?
8. What is preemption and when is a state law preempted by a federal law?
9. What role do administrative agencies play in government? Name a federal agency and a state agency.
10. What is the difference between a state constitution and the federal constitution?
11. How would a secondary source of law guide a court?
12. Explain what a treaty is and when the courts have to follow it.
13. What is the difference between statutory law and constitutional law?
14. What is the difference between public and private law? Give examples.
15. Give an example of substantive law. How does the procedural law compliment the substantive law?
16. Who brings the charges against the accused in a criminal matter?
17. Why are uniform laws important? What is the UCC?
18. What is the definition of “good faith” under the UCC?
19. What is the difference between civil law and criminal law?
20. What are the differences between the various schools of jurisprudential thought? Which is more convincing?

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